At a recent conference held by the Hamilton Project,
participants looked at various methods by which Washington could achieve fiscal
balance. One of the proposals by William Gale of the Brookings Institute
and Benjamin Harris of the Urban Institute and Urban-Brookings Tax Policy
Center suggested the introduction of a Value-Added Tax (VAT). Here are the details.
Let's open
by looking at a selection of VAT rates in Europe and a brief explanation of the concept:
The minimum
standard VAT rate in Europe is 15 percent and states are free to set rates
above that level. As well, they have the option to set a lower rate on a restricted list
of goods and services including food, medicines, books and newspapers among
others.
The VAT or GST
(in Canada and New Zealand among others) is an indirect tax on consumption that
applies to most transactions that involve goods and services. Value-Added
Taxes were first introduced in France in 1948 at the manufacturing level and in
1954 at the consumption level. These consumption tax systems exist in
more than 120 countries around the world including every OECD nation other than
the United States and rates range from 3 percent to 25 percent. Value-Added
Taxes are charged on the majority of transactions at every level in the supply
chain from production through to the final sale of the product to the consumer.
For the most part, the levying of the tax is completely hidden to the
final consumer. These taxes are not meant to be a cost to businesses and
are generally recoverable either by direct refund of the amount paid or by
offsetting the VAT incurred in production against the VAT due.
Ultimately, it is the end consumer (you and I) that bear the entire cost
of the VAT or GST unless local governments offer an offsetting tax credit.
Governments, in particular, like taxes like the VAT because they have
more revenue potential (particularly as the rate generally seems to increase
with time) and it means that there is a paper trail for governments to follow,
ensuring that there is compliance. It also allows governments the leeway
to tax different goods at different rates; for example, China taxes most items at 17 percent while
household necessities like food are taxed at 13 percent.
Value-Added
Taxes can be extremely lucrative for governments. As shown on this chart, on average, the biggest source of
revenue for European Union nations is VAT, exceeding the revenue from personal
income taxes and nearly tripling the revenue from corporate taxes:
In 2009,
total VAT receipts in Europe were around EUR 783 billion, representing an average 7.4
percent of the GDP of all Member States. In total, VAT raises about 20
percent of the world's entire tax revenue on an annual basis.
As I noted
above, VAT rates tend to rise with time. Here is a chart showing how VAT
rates have varied since they were first introduced for several nations:
Only one
nation out of the ten, Canada, has reduced its VAT since it was first
introduced. It is the fact that VAT rates can be so easily raised as time
passes that is particularly appealing to governments. Basically, don't trust the introductory rate as it won't last long!
Mr. Gale and
Mr. Harris suggest that a broad-based 5 percent VAT accompanied by subsidies to
offset the regressive impacts of imposing the tax could raise about $160
billion per year or 1 percent of GDP. Since the annual deficit currently sits
at around 6.5 percent of GDP, this is not an insignificant amount but all of that money has to come from somewhere - Main Street America.
Of course,
there is always a downside. Randall Holcombe at the Mercatus Center
published a paper in 2010 that outlined issues
which suggested that a VAT was not a good fit for the United States:
1.) The VAT
would tax a base that has traditionally belonged to state governments who rely
on that same base to provide 32 percent of their tax revenues through the
implementation of sales taxes.
2.) The
economic impact of a VAT would depend on how the tax was implemented and what
rate was used. The cost of both compliance and administration of the tax
would negatively impact economic growth. The imposition of a VAT that
generated additional revenue to the government would divert resources from the
private sector, implying lower growth levels. Here is a chart showing how
various levels of VAT would impact economic growth:
Upping the
VAT rate to 10 percent would reduce baseline GDP growth from 3.0 percent to 2.46 percent, a fairly
significant drop considering the low rate of growth since the end of the Great
Recession. In real numbers, by 2030, the GDP losses would be more than
double the revenues raised by a 7 percent VAT as shown here:
While
governments around the world love the thought of raising revenue, the ultimate
benefit of implementing a VAT could be a risky proposition for Washington.
While some economists suggest that Value-Added Taxes have a stimulative
effect on the economy by encouraging companies to create jobs, it is quite
clear that the jury is out and that we should be just as hesitant to believe
that a new VAT will benefit us any more than a drop in the corporate tax level.
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